During the Gulf war in early 1991 an estimated one million tons
of crude oil were released into the Arabian Gulf. Most of this
oil was washed ashore along the Saudi Arabian coastline, causing
the largest oil spill in human history. Friedhelm Krupp is the
European manager for the Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region
project while Peter Symens, engaged on the project, was also a
key member of the team that established the Jubail Wildlife Rescue
Centre, in conjunction with the Saudi Arabian National Commission
for Wildlife Conservation and Development: a project that was
instrumental in saving many birds.
At the time of the spill nobody was able to forecast the ecological
effects of so large a quantity of oil on the Gulf’s shores. Reports
in the media were contradictory: while some journalists stated
that this was no major ecological disaster, others predicted that
the war would turn the Gulf into another Dead Sea.
The Arabian Gulf has always been subjected to oil pollution (from
both natural seepages and man’s activities) but the magnitude
of the recent spill required an international response. Among
other organisations the European Community seconded a task force
to Saudi Arabia. In conjunction with the National Commission for
Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) in Riyadh and other
Saudi Arabian agencies, the European scientists drafted an Environmental
Response Plan for habitat remediation and wildlife rehabilitation.
The ultimate aim was the establishment of a “Marine Habitat and
Wildlife Sanctuary for the Gulf Region”.
Since it was not possible to extend this project to the entire
coastline affected by the oil spill, an area between Ras az-Zawr
and Abu Ali, north of Jubail, was selected for the proposed Marine
Sanctuary. Additionally, the five offshore coral islands of Harqus,
Karan, Kurayn, Jana and Jurayd were included. This area contains
representative examples of the full range of inter tidal and subtidal
habitats found throughout the western Arabian Gulf.
The main objectives of the project are: 1) To assess the damage
caused by the oil-spill, 2) to develop methods for the restoration
of coastal and marine habitats, 3) to document the biological
diversity of the area and address major conservation needs, and
4) to establish a marine research and visitor’s centre.
The NCWCD and the Senckenberg Research Institute of Frankfurt,
Germany, in conjunction with an international team of around 70
scientists, geographers, geologists, marine chemists, microbiologists,
botanists, zoologists and a socio-economist, from Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait and six European countries have been working in the area
since October 1991. Two buildings, which had been set up as a
Wildlife Rescue Centre during the war, were transformed into a
Field Research centre with dry and wet laboratories, a computer
room, stores and a visitor’s room with displays for the general
public.
Oil reached the project area in mid-February 1991. It was washed
ashore by wind and high tides and transported deep into the creeks
and gullies of the salt marshes. More than two years after the
spill the inter tidal is still covered by an almost continuous
band of oiled sediment and tar. Thus research activities are concentrated
in this zone.
One of the most striking features of this area are the extensive
mats of blue-green algae which form on the surface of the broad
inter tidal mud flats. Most of them were severely affected by
the oil, but had recolonised the area by mid 1992. During the
dry season, these mats curl up at their edges, lifting the tar
layer. The oiled sediment underneath is then exposed to further
weathering. Blue-green algae might play an important role in natural
biodegradation. The mechanisms, which are far from being fully
understood, are presently being studied by a team of botanists,
microbiologists and biochemists.
The botanists Benno Böer and Jan Warnken of Osnabrück University,
Germany, studied the effects of the oil-spill on inter tidal vegetation.
Large areas are covered by salt marshes. These are highly productive
habitats and important feeding grounds for birds and other animals.
They have been severely affected by the oil spill with almost
half of the inter tidal vegetation being extinguished. In this
area, the tar layer has changed the normal soil characteristics.
It inhibits the penetration of water and gases and results in
raised temperatures. Avicennia marina is the only mangrove species
to occur in the area. After the war many experts predicted that
these, the northernmost mangrove stands of the Gulf, would not
survive the oil spill. On Qurma Island, where the most extensive
stand north of Abu Ali occurs, the free-floating oil was flushed
naturally from the heavily impacted areas to open water. This
may have saved most of the mangroves on that island. Altogether,
more than 50% survived and a few new seedlings have successfully
colonised some of the impacted areas.
In order to set up a monitoring programme for the inter tidal
fauna, a survey was conducted along the coastline. At ten permanent
stations data on the distribution of inter tidal animals were
collected at regular intervals. Key species of the upper inter
tidal zone were absent at sites affected by the oil spill, while
they were present at normal population densities outside the impacted
areas. Dr David Jones of the University of Wales, and his team
showed that this area had lost most of its typical plant and animal
communities. By the end of 1992, the fauna of the lower shore
in the oiled area had almost recovered. On the upper shore, however,
the tar mats largely continued to prevent resettlement by animals.
Above all, in very sheltered mud flats there is hardly any sign
of recovery on the higher beaches. On rocky shores the thin layers
of tar dried and peeled off the substrate. New recruitment into
these areas was observed in the second half of 1992. In general,
there is a trend towards recovery, with species diversity and
population densities increasing, although animal populations are
not yet stable.
The inter tidal zone of the Arabian Gulf is of crucial importance
for millions of shorebirds which, during short periods in spring
and autumn, feed intensively on the invertebrates in order to
build up the huge fat reserves needed as energy for the long flights
between their Arctic breeding grounds and tropical wintering areas.
Due to the oil pollution and subsequent loss of food, the numbers
of waders along the coastline of the Sanctuary decreased by up
to 98% during the first year following the spill. However, since
November 1992, large numbers of waders have started to re-appear
on their traditional feeding sites as their food resources begin
to recover.
Since adjoining terrestrial areas may have a direct impact on
marine habitats, they are included in the sanctuary as a buffer
zone.
Furthermore, the terrestrial flora and fauna are highly diverse,
and deserve being included in the protection scheme by their own
right. Although oil was carried far inland through tidal channels
and coastal sabkhas, the terrestrial habitats were not directly
affected.
Most of the inshore subtidal areas are very shallow, resulting
in extreme temperature fluctuations and high salinities, which
place considerable environmental stress on wildlife. Major habitats
are plain and sand bottom, macroalgal beds, seagrass beds, whip
coral areas and coral reefs. In these areas there were no visible
signs of damage from oil pollution despite the close proximity
to massive surface oiling. Only a few, small, weathered tar balls
were found on a sea-grass bed. Plant and animal species diversity
in these areas were similar to pre-war conditions.
The five coral cays, Harqus, Karan, Kurayn, Jana and Jurayd off
the coast of Saudi Arabia have a maximum elevation of 3 metres
above high tide level. All except Harqus are covered with a low
layer of salt tolerant plants. The northern islands were severely
affected by the oil spill. On Karan, tar and oiled sediment were
removed from sandy beaches immediately after the spill.
Four species of terns breed on these islands. The colonies of
the lesser-crested tern, with 28,000 pairs, is the largest and
densest in the world and represents a significant part of the
world population of this species. The most numerous species is
the bridled tern, and 34,000 breeding pairs in 1992 place these
islands among the five most important breeding areas for this
species on earth. In addition some 4000 pairs of swift terns and
11850 pairs of white-cheeked tern were observed in 1992. Since
the spill the breeding activities of these terns have been closely
monitored by Peter Symens and Abdullah Al-Suhaibany of the NCWCD.
In 1991 there was no significant impact of the oil-spill on the
terns or their breeding activities. This may be explained by the
fact that the terns had not yet returned to their breeding grounds
when the oil-spill occurred. By the time they arrived (end of
April to early May) there was no more oil floating on the water
surface and the sandy beaches of Karan island had been cleaned.
In 1992, however, the situation was different. The breeding success
of the white-cheeked tern was nil! All chicks were taken by the
larger swift terns. The breeding success of the other species
declined by more than 50%. Many incubating terns abandoned their
nests before the eggs hatched. The growth rate of chicks was much
lower than in 1991, resulting in a higher chick mortality. There
was an important increase in aggression and “food-stealing” between
birds returning with fish to feed their chicks. These phenomena
may be attributed to a shortage of young pelagic fish on which
the terns feed. The cause of the shortage remains uncertain. It
may be a late effect of the oil-spill, or a drop in sea-temperature
caused by smoke from the Kuwait oil-well fires, or a failure in
fish stock recruitment during the extremely cold winter of 1991-92,
or a combination of these factors. In 1993 the growth rate of
the tern chicks was back to normal, indicating that fish were
again abundant.
The offshore islands are also the primary nesting sites of green
and hawksbill turtles in the Gulf. The breeding biology of these
two species was monitored by NCWCD and project biologists on Karan
and Jana. The breeding success of turtles since 1991 was within
the expected range.
The coral reefs around these islands are the most diverse in the
Gulf. Except for anchor damage, offshore coral reefs are healthy
without any visible signs of oil damage. On Karan a few bleached
stagshorn corals were found, but their number did not exceed normal
levels. Fish populations also showed the expected species diversity
and normal population densities.
Owing to its ecological value and importance for wildlife, the
area had been earmarked for protection from several years before
the war. The 1991 Gulf war oil spill added a new dimension to
the task of establishing a marine sanctuary in this area, requiring
international action. Due to naturally extreme environmental conditions,
many marine and coastal plant and animal species live at the limits
of their distributional range. They are particularly sensitive
to man-induced changes. In many areas the Gulf war caused a de-stabilisation
of the environmental equilibrium and the establishment of a Marine
Habitat and Wildlife Sanctuary is seen as an appropriate response.
After remediation and recovery from the effects of the oil pollution
and other man-induced disturbances, this Sanctuary will help conserve
the unique wildlife of the Gulf and at the same time form a nucleus
for the re colonisation of other areas affected by the oil spill.
The long term success of such a project largely depends upon the
support it receives from local people. To secure their support
the project’s education manager, Rod Fleming, has developed an
extensive educational programme for environmental awareness.